Episodes

  • 29 - Internal Alchemy.

    29 - Internal Alchemy.
    Apr 23 2026
    Internal Alchemy. Internal Alchemy Taoism or Transformation Taoism focuses on internal transformation through the use of various self-cultivation techniques like qigong, neidan (internal alchemy), Yangsheng and so forth. The basic worldview of this Taoist tradition is that all beings are born with certain forms of energy (mainly the three treasures of jing, qi and shen), which become dissipated, weak and lost as we age. To prevent this and to increase our inner vital energies, one must practice various methods of "internal alchemy" (neidan) to harmonize the internal energy in one's body and refine the "golden elixir" (jindan) inside the body. These meditative inner alchemical practices are believed to lead to greater longevity and even immortality (union with the Tao at death). Another worldview is that beings must "harmonize yin and yang forces internally to achieve immortality." A term used by some Taoists that sums up traditions that do not use these practices is "singular path". Most traditions follow the "singular path". These include the Longmen (Dragon Gate) sect of the Quanzhen School, the Xiantiandao (Earlier Heaven Way) sect, the Wuliupai sect, and the Wudang quan sect. The Quanzhen School was founded by Wang Chongyang (1112–1170), a hermit in the Zhongnan mountains who was said in legends to have met and learned secret methods from two immortals: Lu Dongbin and Zhongli Quan. He then moved to Shandong and preached his teachings, founding various religious communities.[88] His school popularized Internal Alchemy Taoism and the usage of the term. One of his "seven perfected" disciples, Qiu Chuji (1148–1227), founded the Dragon Gate lineage. Chuji was also made the leader of all religions in China by Genghis Khan, making his tradition the most powerful in all of China, and contributing to Longmen's lasting influence. Another important Quanzhen lineage is the Qingjing pai, founded by the nun Sun Bu'er (1119–1182), the only female member of the "seven perfected". Today, Quanzhen is mainly made up of celibate monastics who practice vegetarianism, sobriety, internal alchemy and recite daily liturgies. The largest lineage is Dragon Gate Taoism. Much like Taoists who see writings made by influential members of their faith as having a divine nature, some Taoists view self-cultivation as a way for emotions and self to partake in divinity, and a smaller subset of these view some mythological beings such as xian as being divine. Xian were viewed in many lights and as completely different types of beings over different times and in different places. They were sometimes viewed as deities, parts of the celestial hierarchy, metaphorical ideals that people should strive to be like, reclusive Taoist masters who know how to control and harness spiritual energies or shamans. Hygiene Taoism. Hygiene Taoism is a Taoist tradition meant to increase life and "physical and mental harmony". Some Taoists from the "Hygiene School" believed that they could survive only on their own breath and saliva to purify their bodies. Much of Taoism in general is about cleanliness in some way and involves free thinking, as well as rejecting the gratification of the senses, in order to purify oneself to make the mind like "the sky", "sun", and nature in general. Karmic Taoism. Karmic Taoism, or "Action and Karma Taoism", according to Wong, focuses on ethics and is grounded in the idea that the sacred celestial powers aid and reward those who do good and punish those who do evil. This tradition can be traced back to Song dynasty Taoist Li Ying-chang and his Laozu Treatise on the Response of the Tao (T'ai-shang kan-ying p'ien). Li sparked a popular movement which focused on the everyday life of ordinary persons instead of on temples, monasteries and sages. At the core of this tradition is living in harmony with the Tao and with the Way of Heaven, which means acting with benevolence, kindness and compassion. Doing evil is considered a transgression against the way and this evil will be punished by deities, celestial ministers and judges. These ideas are quite ancient, the Taiping Jing (Scripture of Great Peace) states: "accumulate good deeds, and prosperity will come to you from the Tao". Besides wealth and prosperity, Karmic Taoism also believes that doing good increases longevity, while doing evil decreases it. Another common idea in this group of Taoist traditions is that there deities, like the Kitchen Lord, who monitor our actions and report to Heaven and the Jade Emperor (who tallies them and metes out punishment and reward). Karmic Taoism is a nonsectarian tradition adopted by many Taoist sects. The Laozu Treatise on the Response of the Tao is studied in Quanzhen Taoism, Hsien-t'ien Tao and in the Wu-Liu sect. All major schools of Taoism view ethics as the foundation for spirituality. Furthermore, there are those who are not affiliated with a Taoist sect who may still follow Karmic Taoism in daily ...
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    8 mins
  • 28 - Varieties.

    28 - Varieties.
    Apr 23 2026
    Varieties. Throughout its history, many schools and branches of Taoism emerged, organized around particular lineages, texts, or sacred mountains and temples. In the modern era, religious Taoism in China is described as being organized around two enduring traditions: - Zhengyi (“Orthodox Unity”) Taoism is the principle non-monastic Taoist denomination, traced to the Celestial Masters tradition that began with Zhang Daoling in 185 CE. Zhengyi priests live in society (often marrying and maintaining households) and function primarily as ritual specialists serving local communities through public services. These services include such as jiao offerings/renewal rites, zhai fasts and purification observances, funerary and salvation rites, exorcistic and healing rituals, and the use of talismans and registers that confer ritual authority. - Quanzhen Taoism (“Complete Perfection”) represents the monastic form of Taoism, founded in the 12th century by Wang Chongyang. It emphasizes celibate communal life, formal ordination and precepts, meditation and contemplative discipline, and inner cultivation practices such as internal alchemy (neidan). It is framed explicitly through a "Three Teachings" synthesis that combines Taoist cosmology, Buddhist meditative and monastic models, and Confucian ethical self-regulation. These two traditions developed during the Song dynasty and grew to become recognized by the imperial government during late imperial China. There are also various smaller Taoist groups and traditions of practice. One modern, interpretive framework created by Eva Wong divides the major "systems" of Taoism into five categories: Magical Taoism, Divinational Taoism, Ceremonial Taoism, Internal-Alchemical Taoism and Action and Karma Taoism. Magical Taoism. Magical Taoism is one of the oldest Taoist systems, and its practices are similar to the shamans and sorcerers of ancient China. Magical Taoism believes there are various natural powers, deities, and spirits (benevolent and malevolent) in the universe that can be made use of by specialists who know the right methods. Their magic can include rainmaking, protection, exorcism, healing, traveling to the underworld to help the dead, and mediumship. Protection magic can include the use of amulets and fulu, as well as specific rites. Protection rites often include ritual petitions to the celestial deities of the northern bushel. Divination is also a widespread practice. A commonly used method of divination in magical Taoism is sandwriting (planchette writing). According to Eva Wong, the main sects of magical Taoism today are the secretive Maoshan sect, not to be confused with Shangqing), the Celestial Masters and the Kun-Lun sect (which is strongly influenced by Tibetan magic and make use of Taoist and Buddhist deities). Divinational Taoism. Divinational Taoism focuses on various divination techniques to help one predict the future and live accordingly. This practice can also carry deeper spiritual significance, since it can help one appreciate the flux of the Tao. This form of Taoism owes much to the ancient Fangshi, the Yin and yang school of thought, and often relies on the I Ching. This tradition also relies on the cosmology of Wuji and Taiji, along with the teachings of yin and yang, the five elements and the Chinese calendar. There many forms of Taoist divination, they include: celestial divination (which include various systems of Chinese astrology, like Tzu-wei tu-su), terrestrial divination (feng shui), the casting of incense sticks with hexagrams on them and the interpretation of omens. Contemporary divinational Taoism is practiced in temples and monasteries by various individuals and may not be sect specific (it is even practiced by non-Taoists). This Taoist practice can be found in the Mao-shan sorcerers, the Celestial Masters sect and the Dragon Gate Taoism and Wudang Mountains sects. There are also many lay practitioners that are not affiliated with any specific sect. These lay Taoist practitioners are called "kui-shih". Ceremonial Taoism. Ceremonial Taoism focuses on ritual and devotion towards various celestial deities and spirits. The basic belief of ceremonial Taoism is that through various rites, human beings can honor the deities and these deities may then grant them with power, protection and blessings. Rituals and festivals can include chanting, offerings, and the reading of scripture. These rites are mostly performed by ritual masters who have trained extensively for this role and who may, through their mastery of ritual, intercede on behalf of laypersons. There are various kinds of festivals in Ceremonial Taoism, including "Great Services" (chai-chiao) and Ritual Gatherings (fa-hui) that can last for days and can focus on repentance, rainmaking, disaster aversion or petitioning. There are feast days which honor specific deities. 164 Funerals and birthday blessings are a common service. There is a ...
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    7 mins
  • 27 - Political views and influence.

    27 - Political views and influence.
    Apr 23 2026
    Political views and influence. Taoist texts and traditions do not present a single unified political doctrine. However, both the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi repeatedly express skepticism toward coercive rule, war, and punitive governance, often recommending forms of wúwéi (non-interfering rule) and simplicity. The Zhuangzi’s Inner Chapters (1–7) are frequently read as expressing skepticism toward political life and fixed normative standpoints, emphasizing perspective and adaptability rather than a detailed program of governance. Early imperial Huang–Lao thought is often associated with statecraft and imperial governance (including ideals of rulerly wuwei),[355] while some “Primitivist” materials in the Zhuangzi (commonly grouped as chapters 8–11) have been interpreted as advancing an anarchistic or anti-statist vision. The syncretist position found in texts like the Huainanzi and some of the Outer Chapters of the Zhuangzi blend Taoist positions with Confucian views. Despite the fact Taoist traditions are associated with ideals of minimal governance and withdrawal from political ambition, Taoism has played an important role at court as a source of ritual power and dynastic legitimacy throughout Chinese history. For example. during the Tang dynasty, the ruling Li family explicitly linked its genealogy to Laozi (whose traditional surname was also Li) and imperial patronage of Taoism helped reinforce the dynasty’s claim to rule. Relations with other traditions. Many scholars believe Taoism arose as a counter-movement to Confucianism. The philosophical terms Tao and De are shared by both Taoism and Confucianism. However, in the Daodejing and the Zhuangzi, Confucian ritual propriety and hierarchical social conventions are often treated skeptically, and the texts instead emphasize ziran (“naturalness”), spontaneity, and nonconformity. Zhuang Zhou explicitly criticized Confucian and Mohist tenets in his work. In the Zhuangzi, Confucians and Mohists frequently serve as representative “moralist” schools: Zhuangzi criticizes them for adhering to fixed unchanging moral rules, for getting stuck in arguments over “right and wrong,” and for trying to force narrow, one-size-fits-all prescriptions on a world that looks different from different perspectives. The entry of Buddhism into China was marked by significant interaction and syncretism with Taoism. Originally seen as a kind of "foreign Taoism", Buddhism's scriptures were translated into Chinese using the Taoist vocabulary. Representatives of early Chinese Buddhism, like Sengzhao and Tao Sheng, knew and were deeply influenced by the Taoist keystone texts. Taoism especially shaped the development of Chan Buddhism, introducing elements like the concept of naturalness, distrust of scripture and text, and emphasis on embracing "this life" and living in the "every-moment". Zhuangzi's statements that the Tao was omnipresent and that creation escorts animals and humans to death influenced Chinese Buddhist practitioners and scholars, especially Chan Buddhists. On the other hand, Taoism also incorporated Buddhist elements during the Tang dynasty. A key example of this can be seen in the Lingbao tradition, an important set of Taoist texts that incorporated Buddhist ideas of karma, death and re-birth, and Buddhist cosmology into the Taoist tradition. Later, in the 12th century, the Quanzhen School of Taoism was explicitly founded on three teachings philosophy, incorporating the mediation techniques and monastic organization of Buddhism alongside the ethical discipline and social responsibility of Confucianism. Ideological and political rivals for centuries, Taoism, Confucianism, Hinduism, and Buddhism deeply influenced one another. For example, Wang Bi, one of the most influential philosophical commentators on Laozi (and the I Ching), was a Confucian. The three rivals also share some similar values, with all three embracing a humanist philosophy emphasizing moral behavior and human perfection. In time, most Chinese people identified to some extent with all three traditions simultaneously. This became institutionalized when aspects of the three schools were synthesized in the Neo-Confucian school. Christian and Taoist contact often took place in the Tang dynasty, and some scholars believe that the Church of the East influenced Taoist thought on the Three Pure Ones. Emperor Taizong encouraged this, and Taoists who agreed with him and his laws incorporated elements of Christianity, Islam, Manichaeism, Judaism, Confucianism, and Buddhism into their faith. Comparisons with other religions. Comparisons between Taoism and Epicureanism have focused on the absence of a creator or gods controlling the forces of nature in both.[370] Lucretius' poem De rerum natura describes a naturalist cosmology where there are only atoms and void (a primal duality which mirrors yin-yang in its dance of assertion/yielding), and where nature ...
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    6 mins
  • 26 - Society.

    26 - Society.
    Apr 23 2026
    Society.
    Taoist communities can include a wide variety of people and groups, including daoshi, hermits, monastics, teachers, householders, ascetics, family lineages, teacher-disciple lineages, urban associations, temples, and monasteries.
    According to Russell Kirkland, throughout most of its history, most Taoist traditions "were founded and maintained by aristocrats or by members of the later well-to-do 'gentry' class". The only real exception is the Celestial Masters movement, which had a strong basis in the lower classes (though even this movement had a hereditary leadership made up of figures of the Chang clan for generations).

    Adherents.
    The number of Taoists is difficult to estimate, due to a variety of factors, including defining Taoism. According to a survey of religion in China in 2010, the number of people practicing some form of Chinese folk religion is near to 950 million, which is 70% of Chinese. Among these, 173 million (13%) claim an affiliation with Taoist practices. 12 million people stated that they were "Taoists", a term traditionally used exclusively for initiates, priests, and experts of Taoist rituals and methods.
    Since the creation of the People's Republic of China, the government has encouraged a revival of Taoist traditions in codified settings. In 1956, the Chinese Taoist Association was formed to administer the activities of all registered Taoist orders, and received official approval in 1957. It was disbanded during the Cultural Revolution, but was reestablished in 1980. The headquarters of the association are at the Baiyunguan, or White Cloud Temple of Beijing, belonging to the Longmen branch of the Quanzhen tradition. Since 1980, many Taoist monasteries and temples have been reopened or rebuilt, both belonging to the Zhengyi or Quanzhen schools, and ordination has been resumed.
    Taoist literature and art has influenced the cultures of Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Organized Taoism seems not to have attracted a large non-Chinese following until modern times. In Taiwan, 7.5 million people, 33% of the population, identify themselves as Taoists. Data collected in 2010 for religious demographics of Hong Kong and Singapore show that, respectively, 14% and 11% of the people of these cities identify as Taoists.
    Followers of Taoism are present in Chinese émigré communities outside Asia. It has attracted followers with no Chinese heritage. For example, in Brazil there are Taoist temples in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro that are affiliated with the Taoist Society of China. Membership of these temples is entirely of non-Chinese ancestry.

    Art and poetry.
    Throughout Chinese history, there have been many examples of art being influenced by Taoism. Notable painters influenced by Taoism include Wu Wei, Huang Gongwang, Mi Fu, Muqi Fachang, Shitao, Ni Zan, Tang Mi, and Wang Zengzu. Taoist arts and belles-lettres represents the different regions, dialects, and time spans that are commonly associated with Taoism. Ancient Taoist art was commissioned by the aristocracy; however, scholars masters and adepts also directly engaged in the art themselves.


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    4 mins
  • 25 - Symbols and images.

    25 - Symbols and images.
    Apr 23 2026
    Symbols and images.
    The taijitu, commonly known as the "yin and yang" or "yin-yang" symbol, and bagua are important symbols in Taoism because they represent key elements of Taoist cosmology. Many Taoist (as well as non-Taoist) organizations make use of these symbols, and they may appear on flags and logos, temple floors, or stitched into clerical robes. What has become the standardised yin-yang taijitu originated as a Taoist symbol in the 10th century CE during the early Song dynasty.
    The tiger and Chinese dragon are more ancient symbols for yin and yang respectively, and these two animals are still widely used in Taoist art. Taoist temples in southern China and Taiwan may often be identified by their roofs, which feature dragons, tigers, and phoenixes (with the phoenix also standing for yin) made from multicolored ceramic tiles. In general though, Chinese Taoist architecture lacks universal features that distinguish it from other structures.
    Taoist temples may fly square or triangular flags. They typically feature mystical writing, talismans, or diagrams and are intended to fulfill various functions including providing guidance for the spirits of the dead, bringing good fortune, increasing life span, etc. Other flags and banners may be those of the gods or immortals themselves.
    Drawings of the Big Dipper (also called the Bushel) are also important symbols. In the Shang dynasty of the 2nd millennium BCE, Chinese thought regarded the Big Dipper as a deity, while, in later periods, it came to symbolize taijitu. A related symbol is the flaming pearl, which stands for the pole star and may be seen on such roofs between two dragons as well as on the hairpin of a Celestial Master.
    Some Taoists saw the stars as "knots in the 'net of Heaven'" that connected everything in "heaven and earth".
    Many Taoists saw the Tao as "the [metaphorical] pearl of the sage" and a "conjunction between yin...[and] yang." Taoists also revered pearls more generally, seeing Chinese dragon celestials as emerging from the glint of light off of a pearl that existed "in the mists of chaos" and trapped in an endless cycle where they continually retrieve the pearl that makes them out of the mists. Some Internal Alchemy Taoists worshipped mercury as "divine water" and an embodiment of consciousness that was a "flowing pearl".
    In the later Qing dynasty, Taoists and intellectuals who leaned towards Taoism used the wuxing as symbols of leadership and good governance, using old religious texts and various historiographies made in prior dynasties to assign a phase from the five wuxing to different Chinese dynasties.
    Symbols that represent longevity and immortality are particularly popular, and these include: cranes, pine trees, and the peaches of immortality (associated with the Queen Mother of the West). Natural symbols are also common, and include gourds, caves, clouds, mountains, and the animals of the Chinese zodiac. Other symbols used by Taoists include: the Yellow River Map, the Luoshu Square, I Ching coins, Taoist talismans (fulu), the Four Symbols, and various Chinese characters (such as the character for Tao and the shou ('longevity') character).
    Taoist priests also wear distinctive robes, such as the Daojiao fushi and Taoist versions of the Daopao, which symbolize their status and school affiliation.


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  • 24 - Additional Taoist texts.

    24 - Additional Taoist texts.
    Apr 23 2026
    Additional Taoist texts. In addition to the Tao Teo Ching and Zhuangzi, other influential texts in the Taoist tradition include: Warring States / early Han texts. - Liezi, a Taoist text attributed to Lie Yukou (trad. 5th c. BCE) but widely thought to have been compiled in its received form around the 4th century CE. It is associated with early Taoist philosophy and later regarded (especially in the Tang) as a major Taoist classic alongside the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi. - Neiye, a 4th-century BCE text on self-cultivation that emphasizes breath/qi practices and training the heart-mind (xin). The ideas found in this text influenced later Taoist conceptions of internal alchemy. - Wenzi, A Taoist-oriented text attributed in tradition to a disciple of Laozi, generally dated by modern scholarship to the early Han period and presenting teachings aligned with the Daode jing. Han institutional Taoist texts. - The Taipingjing (“Scripture of Great Peace”), a major early Taoist scripture associated with Han-era religious movements, combining cosmology, ethics, and visions of social and political renewal. - Liexian Zhuan (“Biographies of Immortals”), a Eastern Han (2nd c. CE) text that is the earliest Taoist hagiography of Taoist xian ("immortals"). - Shenxian Zhuan (“Biographies of Divine Immortals”), a Taoist hagiography of immortals partially attributed to the Taoist scholar Ge Hong (283-343). Six Dynasties–Tang medieval “scriptural Taoism” texts. - Baopuzi neipian (“Inner Chapters of the Master Who Embraces Simplicity”), the “Inner Chapters” attributed to Ge Hong (4th c. CE), is a major early source on Taoist immortality, longevity techniques, and alchemical/cultivation theory. - Huangting jing (“Yellow Court Classic”), a foundational Taoist meditation text associated with the Shangqing tradition, describing inner visualization and cultivation practices using the imagery of internal deities and bodily “palaces.” - The Dadong zhenjing (“Perfect Scripture of the Great Cavern”) and the Lingshu ziwen (“Purple Texts Inscribed by the Spirits”), two of the most influential Supreme Clarity scriptures. - Wupian zhenwen (“Perfect Writings in Five Sections”), a foundational Lingbao scripture. - Ling Bao Bi Fai (“Complete Methods of the Numinous Treasure”), a Lingbao manual of longevity practices and neidan. - Zuowanglun (“Essay on Sitting in Forgetfulness”), a work on zuòwàng ("sitting forgetting") meditation by Sima Chengzhen (647–735 CE), reflecting interactions between Taoism and Buddhism. - Huahujing (“Classic of Converting the Barbarians”), a medieval Taoist polemical text that portrays Laozi as traveling west and frames Buddhism as derived from his teaching. Song–Yuan internal alchemy texts. - Cantong qi (“The Kinship of the Three”), a text often dated to the late Han (c. 2nd century CE) that became a foundational classic for Song–Yuan internal alchemy (neidan) through extensive later commentary and reinterpretation. - Huashu (“Book of Transformations”), a 930 CE Taoist classic about internal alchemy, psychological subjectivity, and spiritual transformation. - Wuzhen pian (“Awakening to Reality”), a major Song-dynasty internal alchemy text by Zhang Boduan (987? - 1082). - Huangdi Yinfujing (“Scripture of the Yellow Emperor’s Hidden Talisman”), a medieval Taoist text later central to internal- alchemy traditions, combining cosmological and technical teachings. Song–Ming–Qing Quanzhen/monastic and popular Taoism texts. - Qingjing Jing (“Classic of Clarity and Stillness”), a short Taoist scripture emphasizing purity and stillness, widely used in Quanzhen contexts and often read as synthesizing Taoist themes with Buddhism. - The Lijiao shiwu lun (Fifteen discourses to Establish the Teachings), A set of Quanzhen doctrinal discourses attributed to Wang Chongyang that outlines key principles of Quanzhen practice and religious life. - Zhonghe ji (“Book/Collection of Balance and Harmony”) a 13th-century anthology by Daochun Li that outlines the teachings and practices of the Quanzhen School. - Taishang Ganying pian (“Treatise of the Exalted One on Response and Retribution”), a wildly circulated morality tract that discusses sin and ethics. It asserts that those in harmony with Tao will live long and fruitful lives while the wicked (and their descendants) will suffer and have shortened lives. - Taiyi Jinhua zongzhi (“The Secret of the Golden Flower”), an influential internal alchemy text from the late 17th century. - Longmen precept and teaching texts (Wang Changyue), a set of Qing-dynasty Longmen (Dragon Gate) lineage works by Wang Changyue that codify monastic discipline and ordination stages, including Chuzhen jie, Zhongji jie, Tianxian jie, and Longmen xinfa. Influential Chinese classic texts. Taoists also frequently engaged with important Chinese ...
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    7 mins
  • 23 - Texts.

    23 - Texts.
    Apr 23 2026
    Texts. Some religious Taoist movements view traditional texts as scriptures that are considered sacred, authoritative, binding, and divinely inspired or revealed. However, the Tao Te Ching was originally viewed as "human wisdom" and "written by humans for humans." It and other important texts "acquired authority...that caused them to be regarded...as sacred." On the other hand, the Shangqing School has a tradition of approaching Taoism through scriptural study. It is believed that by reciting certain texts often enough one will be rewarded with immortality. The most influential texts in Taoism are the Tao Te Ching and the Zhuangzi. Tao Te Ching. Throughout the history of Taoism, the Tao Te Ching has been a central text, used for ritual, self-cultivation, and philosophical purposes. According to legend, the Tao Te Ching (also known as the Laozi) was written by Laozi. Authorship, precise date of origin, and even unity of the text are still subject of debate[298] and will probably never be known with certainty. The earliest manuscripts of this work (written on bamboo tablets) date back to the late 4th century BCE, and these contain significant differences from the later received edition (of Wang Bi c. 226–249). Apart from the Guodian text and the Wang Bi edition, another alternative version exists, the Mawangdui Tao Te Chings. Louis Komjathy writes that the Tao Te Ching is "actually a multi-vocal anthology consisting of a variety of historical and textual layers; in certain respects, it is a collection of oral teachings of various members of the inner cultivation lineages." Meanwhile, Russell Kirkland argues that the text arose out of "various traditions of oral wisdom" from the state of Chu that were written, circulated, edited, and rewritten by different hands. He also suggests that authors from the Jixia academy may have been involved in the editing process. The Tao Te Ching is not organized in any clear fashion and is a collection of different sayings on various themes. The leading themes of the Tao Te Ching revolve around the nature of Tao, how to attain it and De, the inner power of Tao, as well as the idea of wu wei. Tao is said to be ineffable and accomplishes great things through small, lowly, effortless, and "feminine" (yin) ways (which are compared to the behavior of water). Ancient commentaries on the Tao Te Ching are important texts in their own right. Perhaps the oldest one, the Heshang Gong commentary, was most likely written in the 2nd century CE. Other important commentaries include the one from Wang Bi and the Xiang'er commentary. Zhuangzi. The Zhuangzi (Book of Master Zhuang), named after its supposed author Zhuang Zhou, is a highly influential composite text of multi-vocal writings from various sources and historical periods. The commentator and editor Guo Xiang (c. 300 CE) helped establish the text as an important source for Taoist thought. One traditional view is that a sage called Zhuang Zhou wrote the first seven chapters (the "inner chapters"), and his students and related thinkers were responsible for the other parts (the outer and miscellaneous chapters). However, some modern scholars, like Russell Kirkland, argue that Guo Xiang is actually the creator of the 33-chapter Zhuangzi text and that there is no solid historical data for the existence of Zhuang Zhou himself (other than the sparse and unreliable mentions in Sima Qian). Zhuangzi also introduced seven versions of the meeting between Laozi and Confucius. Laozi is portrayed as growing old, and his Taoist teachings confuse his famous interlocutors. Zhuangzi also provides the only record of Laozi's death. The Zhuangzi uses anecdotes, parables, and dialogues to express one of its main themes—avoiding cultural constructs and instead living in a spontaneous way aligned with the natural world. This way of living might be perceived as "useless" by most people who follow their own "common sense" and social and political rules, but this uselessness is actually a wiser alternative, since it is more in accord with reality. Daozang. The Daozang (“Daoist Canon”) is the principal collection of Taoist scriptures and related writings. Although earlier Taoist canons were compiled (such as the "Three Caverns") and revised in the medieval and Song–Jin periods, the only complete canon extant today is the Ming-dynasty edition, the Zhengtong Daozang (published in 1445), which contains roughly 1,500 texts. Following the example of the Buddhist Tripiṭaka, it is divided into three dong ("caves" or "grottoes"). They are arranged from "highest" to "lowest": - Cavern of Truth / Authenticity (Dongzhen), associated primarily with Shangqing materials. - Cavern of Mystery (Dongxuan), associated primarily with Lingbao scriptures. - Cavern of Spirit (Dongshen), associated primarily with older traditions, especially the Sanhuang (Three Sovereigns) corpus. In practice, Taoist communities and lineages ...
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    6 mins
  • 22 - Alchemy.

    22 - Alchemy.
    Apr 23 2026
    Alchemy.
    A key element of many schools of Taoism are alchemical practices, which include rituals, meditations, exercises, and the creation of various alchemical substances. The goals of alchemy include physical and spiritual transformation, aligning oneself spiritually with cosmic forces, undertaking ecstatic spiritual journeys, improving physical health, extending one's life, and even becoming an immortal (xian).
    Taoist alchemy can be found in early Taoist scriptures like the Taiping Jing and the Baopuzi. There are two main kinds of alchemy, internal alchemy (neidan) and external alchemy (waidan). Internal alchemy (neidan, literally: "internal elixir"), which focuses on the transformation and increase of qi in the body, developed during the late imperial period (especially during the Tang) and is found in almost all Taoist schools today, though it is most closely associated with the Quanzhen School.
    There are many systems of internal alchemy with different methods such as visualization and breathwork. In the late Imperial period, neidan developed into complex systems that drew on numerous elements, including classic texts and meditations, yangsheng, I Ching symbology, Taoist cosmology, external alchemy concepts and terms, Chinese medicine, and Buddhist influences. Neidan systems tend to be passed on through oral master-disciple lineages that are often to be secret.
    Livia Kohn writes that the main goal of internal alchemy is generally understood as a set of three transformations: "from essence (jing) to energy (qi), from energy to spirit (shen), and from spirit to Dao." Common methods for this include engaging the subtle body and activating the microcosmic orbit. Louis Komjathy adds that neidan seeks to create a transcendent spirit, usually called the "immortal embryo" (xiantai) or "yang spirit" (yangshen).


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    2 mins